Worldwide, 10-20% of young people report having self-harmed at least once before the age of 18 (1, 2) and self-harm is one of the strongest risk factors for completed suicide (3). Suicide is the 2^nd leading cause of death for young people globally (4, 5) and therefore predictors such as self-harm are of great importance.

The World Health Organization reported that from the Global School-Based Health Survey the 12-month prevalence of suicidal ideation in females was 16.2% and for males 12.2%.  Suicidal ideation with plans was reported in 8.3% and 5.8% respectively, but with significant heterogeneity amongst countries (6). Lifetime figures for suicidal ideation are as high as 29.9%, with 9.7% having attempted suicide (7).

Self-harm and suicide are related phenomena which in different countries are defined in slightly different ways. The International Classification of Diseases defines intentional self-harm as: purposely self-inflicted poisoning or injury, including attempted suicide (8), and this definition is most commonly adopted within Europe including the UK and in Australia. This is the definition used within this topic guide.

The fifth edition of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Diseases now includes Non-suicidal self-injury disorder. Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is described as “deliberate, self-inflicted destruction of body tissue without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned”(9); this is reflected in the research output from the United States and Canada. This definition does not include self-poisoning. Within this classification, self-harm with any level of suicidal intent is defined as a suicide attempt.

The heterogeneity of terminology is a contributor to the varying estimates of prevalence around suicidal behaviours, although it appears that prevalence of both NSSI and self-harm are similar in community samples (2). Self-harm with and without suicidal intent are both important risk factors for suicide, and intent can be difficult, even for young people themselves, to determine. It is therefore important that all acts of self-harm are thoroughly explored and addressed with young people.

Risk factors for self-harm

Self-harm is more common in females, whereas completed suicide is more common in males (1). Seventy nine percent of all suicides occur in low- and middle-income countries (4). There are many identified risk factors for self-harm and suicidal behaviours as follows:

 Social

• Low socio-economic status
• Parental death
• Parental mental health problems
• Adverse childhood experiences
• History of physical and sexual abuse
• Bullying
• Low school connectedness
• Family discord
• Interpersonal difficulties
• Living apart from family or in foster care
• Loneliness
• Family and friends who self-harm
• Internet/Social media use
• Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) youth are at greater risk of self-harm

Psychological

• Mental disorder
• Substance misuse
• Low self-esteem
• Hopelessness
• Personality traits (e.g. perfectionism, impulsivity)
• Sleep disturbance

(1, 6, 7, 10-15)

Risk factors for completed suicide

Research on completed suicide is challenging due to the, fortunately, low prevalence. In high-income countries, girls more commonly make suicide attempts, but boys are more likely to die by suicide (16, 17). This could be related to a number of factors, including the lethality of methods, as it is known that violent methods are much stronger predictors of suicide than non-violent methods (18). In the UK violent methods, such as hanging, tend to be greater in males (15). But in lower socio-economic index regions there is a higher female-to-male ratio of completed suicide (19). This may be due to higher levels of suicidal behaviour, or access to lethal means such as pesticides; which accounts for an estimated 30% of suicides worldwide (20). There are also some special groups. For example, young adult women who self-harm by cutting and are hospitalised, are at particular risk of future suicide (18). Other factors such as family history of suicide, poor educational attainment and familial separations (i.e. by divorce or death) are risk factors for suicide, as well as a history of self-harm (1)

Aetiology and why people self-harm

Self-harm occurs less frequently in children under 12, and becomes increasingly common during adolescence (1, 21). However, the majority of these young people do not continue to self-harm into adulthood (22). Self-harm behaviours may be associated with a particular life event, stressor, or episode of mental disorder, or may be more pervasive and become a regular and repeated occurrence.

Self-harm does not occur exclusively in the context of mental disorder and as outlined above there are many known psychosocial risk factors. It is however associated with a range of mental disorders including anxiety, depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (1, 22). Substance use, sleep disturbances and personality traits of intellect/openness are also important predictors (15), along with young people having family and friends who self-harm (23). NSSI and suicidal behaviours are key features of Borderline Personality Disorder, but its diagnosis in adolescents has been deemed controversial in the past due to concerns about its validity and the potential for it being stigmatising (24). It is increasingly recognised that the disorder can be diagnosed in adolescence and there may be differing developmental trajectories, providing an opportunity for early intervention and treatment (25, 26).

There are unfortunately some stigmatising and unhelpful views which persist about self-harm, such that those that self-harm are ‘manipulative’ or ‘attention-seeking’. Why people initially self-harm may stem from a wide variety of situations and exposures, which are often complex. This can include communicating distress to others, a form of coping-mechanism, or to regulate emotions. Repeated self-harm is one of the strongest known risk factors for suicide (27) and roughly a third who die by suicide use the same method for their last self-harm and for suicide (28). Self-harm is not something that should be disregarded by professionals or carers and should be viewed as a sign of underlying distress or dysfunction which requires further assessment, as it may well be that a young person has no other means to communicate these difficulties.

Methods of self-harm and suicide

There is variability in methods of self-harm according to the availability of means and exposures and the method of self-harm does not necessarily predict the method of suicide. In high-income countries, self-cutting and self-poisoning with medication are amongst the most common methods of self-harm (1). However, methods such as charcoal burning (29) or ingestion of pesticides (30) are more widespread in other countries, particularly China.

Drug-poisoning is commonly used in suicide attempters, however completed suicides most often result from other more lethal methods such as pesticide/chemical poisoning, hanging or firearms (31-33).

Assessment and management of self-harm and suicide risk

Despite the high prevalence of self-harm, the majority of young people who self-harm are not known to professionals, with as few as 12% of self-harm episodes in young people presenting to hospital (34). This presents a major problem for societies and limits the number of young people reached by interventions.

The World Health Organization recommends that both specialist and non-specialist health providers seeing children over 10 years old with either a diagnosed mental disorder, interpersonal conflict, loss, or a severe life event, should be asked about thoughts and plans to self-harm (35). If the current presentation is with self-harm it is important to assess thoroughly past self-harm, the risk of further self-harm and suicide risk, alongside thorough psychosocial assessment. Young people use a number of methods to self-harm and may at different times have suicidal intent, or not. It is therefore important to ask about intent. Evidence suggests that, contrary to people’s apprehensions, talking about suicidality may in fact reduce thoughts about suicide and may lead people to seek help (36). This should therefore be an important area of enquiry in young people and mental health professionals should routinely screen for suicidal ideation and current or past self-harm.

Prevention

It is a minority of young people who self-harm, who present to hospital (37), which makes prevention challenging on an individual level. Population-level interventions that restrict access to means are required and there is increasing interest in the role of school-based interventions for mental health (see ‘areas of uncertainty’).

Another widely used prevention strategy is safety planning. There is limited evidence in children, but in adults, safety planning interventions have been found to reduce suicidal behaviours and improve engagement (38). In acute presentations, safety planning, in collaboration with the young person and relevant carers, should include: clear follow up plans, useful contacts, strategies on how to communicate distress and coping skills. This should be reviewed and discussed regularly in future contacts. Restricting access to means is also an important aspect of safety planning and prevention, particularly of impulsive suicide attempts, hopefully providing some time to both reflect and for the crisis to pass.

Public health interventions to restrict access to means have been successful in some regions and include placing barriers at common jumping sites, detoxifying domestic gas and the banning of certain pesticides, or restricting their purchase (39). Legislative measures, safer firearm storage and improved firearm safety are all methods by which firearm-related suicides can be reduced (40); particularly relevant to the United States, where firearms are the most common method of suicide (41).

Media guidance on reporting of suicide is another important intervention. This guidance explains the importance of not sensationalising or over-simplifying the reasons for suicide or providing details on methods of suicide or self-harm. It also suggests that within the report, information about sources of support is provided (42).

Social environment, i.e. family, peers, school and neighbourhood connectedness, can be protective factors against self-harm. Connectedness with others is protective, though it appears that peer-connectedness is not as important when compared to relationships with supportive adults, highlighting the importance of family and school involvement. (43)

Treatment

When self-harm occurs in the context of a mental disorder, the disorder itself should be treated, alongside management of the self-harm.

In terms of the management of self-harm, there are no evidence-based pharmacological interventions, however psychological interventions show promise, in particular Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT), Mentalisation Based Therapy (MBT), and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) (44). While these interventions show evidence of effect in reducing self-harm, their impact on reducing suicide attempts specifically is limited, and no one therapy can be recommended as superior.

It is well acknowledged that families are hugely important in the managing of risk and treatment of self-harm, and interventions with a family component are associated with a reduction in self-harm (44). As a result, most CBT, DBT, and related manuals, have incorporated family components. The Safe Alternatives for Teens and Youths (SAFETY), a “cognitive-behavioural DBT-informed family treatment”, has been shown to be effective in preventing suicide attempts (45). Systemic Family Therapy was not found to reduce hospital attendance for self-harm (46). Social support interventions such as the Youth-Nominated Support Team Intervention-Version II, which incorporates psychoeducation and the adolescent’s nomination of a ‘caring adult’, has shown promising results in reducing mortality in suicidal adolescents’ post-hospitalisation, but its wider usefulness requires further study (47, 48).

Hospital admission for any child or adolescent is uncommon, but there are occasions when risk of self-harm and suicide cannot be managed safely outside this setting and therefore hospital admission may be considered, with or without use of statutory frameworks for compulsory detention. However, hospitalisation of adolescents with repeated self-harm, can have adverse effects and therefore all efforts should be made to provide treatment in an outpatient setting where possible. In some areas, intensive treatment alternatives to hospital admission may be available, and this has been shown to be an effective way of managing young people (49). This is particularly important due to the fact that the period immediately after discharge from hospital is a time when young people are at high risk of suicide (50).

Less established risk factors and exposures

The rise of social media and the internet has caused concern and while there is evidence that suggests aspects of online activity may increase self-harm and suicide, there is also the potential for the internet to serve as a means of seeking positive interactions and support (12).

Ideas and knowledge about self-harm and suicide may be transferred in many ways, including social contacts, schools, the media, or digital means. The potential for contagion effects of self-harm is concerning, though at present little is known about this phenomenon. Concern about exposure to suicide-related content, both in the media and online, is prevalent. This is not a new phenomenon and was outlined by Schmidtke and Hafner in 1988 (51), but more recently the 2017 television series “13 Reasons Why” attracted particular concerns, for fear it glamorised suicide. Research evidence is inconclusive, with evidence both that the exposure to fictional suicide media content such as this results in contagion and some that refutes this claim (52, 53). More research will be required into the nuance of these types of exposures and those that may be particularly vulnerable. It is important that parents and professionals are aware of what digital and media content young people are accessing, and then discuss this with them and consider restricting access in some situations. The 13 Reasons Why Toolkit is an example of a response to these concerns and provides guidance for young people, parents, professionals and educators.

Alternative subcultures, such as goth or emo do appear to be associated with greater risk of self-harm and suicide (54, 55), though the direction of association or specifics about what aspects of these subcultures are harmful require further research.

Suicide theory

There has been development of a number of ‘ideation to action’ suicide theories which are hoped to provide a framework by which to better understand suicide risk. This includes the ‘Interpersonal Theory’ of suicide, the ‘Three-step Theory’, the ‘Integrated Motivational-volitional Model’, and the ‘Fluid Vulnerability Theory’; all of which have undergone varying degrees of investigation (56). These theories are based on the concept that thoughts about suicide and suicidal acts are distinct processes, and that factors that influence the development of suicidal thoughts are different to those which lead to the transition from thoughts to acts.

There is some evidence to suggest that altered pain tolerance is associated with self-harm, though it is not yet clear whether this is a consequence or cause of the behaviour (57). This may have a role in ‘habituation’ to self-harm, increasing the capability to make a successful suicide attempt (58). This may be through psychological or biological mechanisms and requires more research. However, there is already evidence that those who self-harm have higher pain thresholds and that these people also have higher levels of personality features such as introversion, neuroticism and lower self-worth (59).

Prevention

Different types of school-based prevention programme have been developed which fit into the categories of universal prevention (delivered to whole school populations), selective prevention (delivered to groups identified as being at higher risk) and indicated prevention (delivered to those already known to engage in self-harm behaviour aimed at reducing its severity and frequency). Many of these programmes do not as of yet have clear evidence for their effectiveness, however, two universal interventions have shown promise. There has been some success shown with the Youth Aware of Mental Health Programme, which in the SEYLE Randomized Control Trial showed effectiveness in both reducing severe suicidal ideation and suicide attempts compared with controls (60) and in the Signs of Suicide (SOS) prevention programme which had promising results in reducing suicidal thoughts and behaviours (61, 62).

As there are many reasons young people may self-harm there is potential in trying to address particular aspects of the aetiology of self-harm. For example, by addressing self-criticism through novel interventions such as Autobiographical Self Enhancement Training. This has shown some potential positive effects, but limited effect on suicidality (63).

Digital platforms are so commonly used by young people and a wealth of information may be shared online. Electronic health records also hold a great deal of unstructured information on self-harm and suicide risk. There is the potential, using novel technological advancements, such as Natural Language Processing, to detect risk of self-harm and suicide in both digital platforms (64) and in routinely collected electronic health records (65); which could lead to better detection of young people at risk and targeting of interventions.

The following provide further useful information and resources about self-harm. Please be aware that not all resources will have undergone formal evaluation.  Some resources are country-specific and therefore may not applicable to other settings. The authors cannot guarantee that the following resources will remain up-to-date.

For health professionals:

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (United Kingdom) guidance:

• Short term management
• Long-term management
• The above information is also incorporated in an interactive flowchart

Resources:

• CBT Workbook: Cutting Down: A CBT workbook for treating young people who self-harm by Lucy Taylor
• Worksheets to accompany the handbook

Resources for non-health professionals:

• E-learning module
• Guide for school staff

Information for young people:

• Young Minds
• Childline, or Call 0800 1111

For parents and carers:

• Download Coping with self-harm A Guide for Parents and Carers

Safety planning:

• Royal College of Psychiatrists ‘Feeling overwelmed’
• Suicide safety planning (not specifically for young people)
• Distraction techniques download

Media recommendations for suicide:

• Reportingonsuicide.org (United States) download
• Samaritans (United Kingdom)
• 14 Reasons Why Toolkit

Mental Health Apps

• There are a number of mental health apps available via the UK National Health Service (NHS) website, some specifically for managing self-harm.

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Recordings

Understanding Self-Harm – TRIGGER WARNING: Please be aware that this blog discusses self-harm, including personal experiences of self-harm. It is estimated that between 10%-20% of all people self-harm at some point during their lifetime. It is hard to gather exact figures due to the stigma surrounding self-harm, and because people try to hide their wounds, scars and bruises. Watch this 8-minute film to understand more.

‘Self Harm – Pedagogy in Practice’ – ACAMH is delighted to have teamed up with the Chartered College of Teaching to present ‘Self Harm – Pedagogy in Practice’.

Podcasts

Emotional Dysregulation, Disordered Eating, and Self-harm: Associations and Mediating Pathways – Dr. Naomi Warne and Dr. Helen Bould to discuss their JCPP paper, ‘Emotional dysregulation in childhood and disordered eating and self-harm in adolescence: prospective associations and mediating pathways’.

Sleep and Daily Suicidal Ideation Among High-Risk Adolescents and Young Adults – Dr. Jessica Hamilton and Dr. Peter Franzen about their co-authored JCPP paper, ‘Sleep influences daily suicidal ideation through affective reactivity to interpersonal events among high-risk adolescents and young adults’.

Managing Impulsive and Risky Behaviour – Episode 6 ‘ADHD, A Young Person’s Guide’ – Dr. Blandine French is joined by Ruth Pearse, from Parenting Special Children. This podcast also features clips from two young adults, Emily and Alex, who share their lived experiences of ADHD, and managing impulsive and risky behaviour. (TRIGGER WARNING: Please be aware that this podcast discusses self-harm, substance abuse, sexual consent, and behaviours that can be described as impulsive or risky.)

Suicidal Ideation During Adolescence: Genetic Liability & Negative Life Events – Dr. Séverine Lannoy on her JCPP paper ‘Suicidal ideation during adolescence: The roles of aggregate genetic liability for suicide attempts and negative life events in the past year’, published in the JCPP Special Issue 2022.

Student Mental Health and What CAMH Professionals Need to Know – Two students, Rhiannon Hawkins and Nathan Randles, to discuss student mental health and what CAMH professionals need to know. (TRIGGER WARNING: Please be aware that this podcast discusses personal experiences of self-harm and suicide.)

Self-harm & Self-Injury – Episode. 9 ‘Autism a parents guide’ – Focusing on autistic children who harm themselves, we are joined by Dr. Ann Ozsivadjian, and Dr. Penny Williams.

ADHD, Self-Harm, and the Importance of Early Childhood Intervention – In Conversation with Dr. Melissa Mulraney – Dr. Melissa Mulraney discusses what influenced her to specialise in child and adolescent mental health, as well as highlights some of her most recent papers that focus on her research interests (ADHD, emotional dysregulation and sleep).

‘Maternal depression, suicide risk and culturally appropriate interventions’ – In Conversation with Dr. Rhonda Boyd – Dr. Rhonda Boyd talks depression, suicide and culturally appropriate interventions.

In Conversation… Suicide and Self-harm with Dr Abigail Russell – Abigail discusses her paper on inflammation and self-harm, its findings and implications moving forward. As well as the cohort study (ALSPAC), to school interventions and creating change through national dialogue.

In Conversation… Suicide and Self-harm with Professor David Cottrell – David discusses school-based interventions, recent studies on prevention/intervention and (SHIFT), a large multi-centre randomised controlled trial, investigating systemic family therapy following teenage self-harm.

In Conversation… Suicide and Self-harm with Professor Lars Mehlum – Lars discusses dialectical behaviour therapy for adolescents (DBT-A) as an intervention, his paper in The JCPP, national strategies for suicide prevention and the latest clinical research.

In Conversation… Dr. Trudie Roussow – Dr. Trudie Roussow discusses Mentalisation Based Treatment for adolescents (MBT-A), how it differs from MBT for adults, and how this type of intervention can be utilised for those who self-harm.

In Conversation… Self-Harm – Dr Dennis Ougrin emphasises the importance of early intervention and prevention, as well as the potential of Therapeutic Assesssment, a novel model of assessment for young people with self-harm.

Blogs

NICE guidelines for self-harm: a new school of thought – Dr. Holly Crudgington and Prof. Dennis Ougrin discuss this guidance, focusing on the new advice for schools and its implications.

Self-harm and Suicide – Research Digests