Socioeconomic disadvantage has long been associated with poorer cognitive outcomes, affecting executive function, memory, and academic performance (Lawson et al., 2018), which creates long-term disparities in achievement and success (Best et al., 2011). Beyond the individual, childhood poverty costs the USA government >$1 trillion a year in part due to loss of economic productivity (McLaughlin & Rank, 2018). Although growing up in poverty carries many risks, some children defy the odds and demonstrate positive cognitive outcomes. Identifying factors that promote such resilience in disadvantaged contexts is essential for informing interventions and policies aimed at mitigating the negative effects of socioeconomic adversity on cognitive development.
Our study used rich data from a large population-based, diverse study from the US, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, a study of over 11,000 children aged 9-10 years to understand which factors promote cognitive resilience (Rakesh et al., 2024). We used advanced machine learning to examine how numerous factors at the individual, family, and environment (e.g., neighbourhood) level contribute to resilience in disadvantaged contexts. Our study investigated 164 different factors that assessed child characteristics (such as temperament, physical and mental health), family and developmental history (including breastfeeding duration, family conflict, parent mental health issues), and environment (for example traumatic events and neighbourhood environments) in resilience.
So, what promotes cognitive resilience?
We examined two types of cognitive function. Crystallized cognition refers to the knowledge and skills gained through experience, such as vocabulary and general knowledge. Fluid cognition, on the other hand, involves the ability to think flexibly and solve novel problems, encompassing reasoning and problem-solving skills (Cattell, 1963, 1987). While findings differed slightly, patterns generally overlapped between the two types of cognitive resilience.
Several factors emerged as important for cognitive resilience. One significant factor was participation in extracurricular activities, such as arts programs (e.g., music, dance, theatre), and physical activity which were associated with higher cognitive resilience. These activities likely contribute to creativity, discipline, and concentration, as well as provide opportunities for skill-building and social interaction, benefiting cognitive development (Haverkamp et al., 2020).
“Although growing up in poverty carries many risks, some children defy the odds and demonstrate positive cognitive outcomes. Identifying factors that promote such resilience in disadvantaged contexts is essential for informing interventions and policies aimed at mitigating the negative effects of socioeconomic adversity on cognitive development.”
The family environment also played a crucial role in shaping a child’s cognitive resilience. Higher caregiver education correlated with being resilient, highlighting the importance of parental knowledge and support. The duration of breastfeeding also showed a positive link to cognitive resilience, potentially due to its nutritional and bonding benefits. Lower family conflict was another important factor, as lower levels of stress in the home could positively influence the development of physiological systems that regulate attention (Hinnant et al., 2013) and allow children to focus on learning.
Our findings also underscore the importance of neighbourhood environments for cognitive development (Lloyd et al., 2010). Children who lived in areas with lower poverty and vacancy rates had higher levels of academic achievement, and more children attending advanced classes were more likely to be resilient. Access to quality education and positive peer role models in these environments likely provided essential learning opportunities, supporting cognitive development. Additionally, children’s mental health and prosocial behaviour—such as fewer attention and social problems and maintaining close friendships—were associated with higher odds of resilience. Positive relationships with peers provide emotional support and stability and social connections are known to promote psychosocial resilience (Harmelen et al., 2017) and may buffer against the negative effects of growing up in a disadvantaged home. Interestingly, less advanced pubertal status was linked to higher odds of cognitive resilience. This finding aligns with the theory that chronic stress, which is common in low-income environments, may trigger earlier pubertal development (Ellis et al., 2022), which could impair cognitive function.
Our study demonstrates that cognitive resilience in low-income youth is shaped by a complex interplay of factors. Individual traits, family dynamics, and the broader environment all contribute to a child’s ability to overcome disadvantage and thrive. Fostering cognitive resilience requires a holistic approach that addresses the many factors influencing cognitive development. This means reducing poverty, providing emotional and intellectual support at home, creating enriching environments at school, and ensuring that all children, regardless of their socioeconomic background, have access to the resources and opportunities they need to succeed.
NB this blog has been peer-reviewed
References
- Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
- Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046743
- Cattell, R. B. (1987). Intelligence: Its structure, growth and action (pp. xxii, 694). North-Holland.
- Ellis, B. J., Sheridan, M. A., Belsky, J., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2022). Why and how does early adversity influence development? Toward an integrated model of dimensions of environmental experience. Development and Psychopathology, 34(2), 447–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001838
- Harmelen, A.-L. van, Kievit, R. A., Ioannidis, K., Neufeld, S., Jones, P. B., Bullmore, E., Dolan, R., Consortium, T. N., Fonagy, P., & Goodyer, I. (2017). Adolescent friendships predict later resilient functioning across psychosocial domains in a healthy community cohort. Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2312–2322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717000836
- Haverkamp, B. F., Wiersma, R., Vertessen, K., van Ewijk, H., Oosterlaan, J., & Hartman, E. (2020). Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and young adults: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(23), 2637–2660. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1794763
- Hinnant, J. B., El-Sheikh, M., Keiley, M., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2013). Marital Conflict, Allostatic Load, and the Development of Children’s Fluid Cognitive Performance. Child Development, 84(6), 2003–2014. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12103
- Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., & Farah, M. J. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. Developmental Science, 21(2), e12529. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12529
- Lloyd, J. E. V., Li, L., & Hertzman, C. (2010). Early experiences matter: Lasting effect of concentrated disadvantage on children’s language and cognitive outcomes. Health & Place, 16(2), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HEALTHPLACE.2009.11.009
- McLaughlin, M., & Rank, M. R. (2018). Estimating the Economic Cost of Childhood Poverty in the United States. Social Work Research, 42(2), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svy007
- Rakesh, D., Sadikova, E., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2024). Beyond the income-achievement gap: The role of individual, family, and environmental factors in cognitive resilience among low-income youth. JCPP Advances, e12297. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcv2.12297
About the author
My research uses tools from developmental cognitive neuroscience to investigate how childhood socioeconomic status and exposure to environmental adversity influence brain and cognitive development as well as mental health during childhood and adolescence. My work also seeks to understand how psychological and environmental factors can mitigate the effects of adversity, fostering resilience. Ultimately, my research aims to leverage insights into individual variations in brain development to support children’s overall well-being and academic success, fostering positive mental health and cognitive function in young individuals.
Prior to joining King’s, Dr. Rakesh was a postdoctoral researcher at Harvard University, USA. She received her PhD in Neuroscience from the University of Melbourne, Australia and her Masters of Research in Neuroscience from the University of Bordeaux, France. Before that, she completed an MBA from Mudra Institute of Communication and a BSc (Hons) in Biochemistry at the University of Delhi, India.